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    <IdentifierDoi>10.3205/zma001229</IdentifierDoi>
    <IdentifierUrn>urn:nbn:de:0183-zma0012299</IdentifierUrn>
    <ArticleType language="en">editorial</ArticleType>
    <ArticleType language="de">Leitartikel</ArticleType>
    <TitleGroup>
      <Title language="en">Patient safety: a new basic science for professional education</Title>
      <TitleTranslated language="de">Patientensicherheit: Eine neue Grundlagenwissenschaft f&#252;r die berufliche Ausbildung</TitleTranslated>
    </TitleGroup>
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      <Creator>
        <PersonNames>
          <Lastname>Wu</Lastname>
          <LastnameHeading>Wu</LastnameHeading>
          <Firstname>Albert W.</Firstname>
          <Initials>AW</Initials>
          <AcademicTitle>Prof.</AcademicTitle>
        </PersonNames>
        <Address>Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management, 624 N. Broadway, Hampton House 653, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, United States<Affiliation>Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Health Policy and Management, Baltimore, MD, United States</Affiliation></Address>
        <Email>awu&#64;jhu.edu</Email>
        <Creatorrole corresponding="yes" presenting="no">author</Creatorrole>
      </Creator>
      <Creator>
        <PersonNames>
          <Lastname>Busch</Lastname>
          <LastnameHeading>Busch</LastnameHeading>
          <Firstname>Isolde M.</Firstname>
          <Initials>IM</Initials>
        </PersonNames>
        <Address>
          <Affiliation>University of Verona, Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Clinical Psychology, Verona, Italy</Affiliation>
        </Address>
        <Creatorrole corresponding="no" presenting="no">author</Creatorrole>
      </Creator>
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    <PublisherList>
      <Publisher>
        <Corporation>
          <Corporatename>German Medical Science GMS Publishing House</Corporatename>
        </Corporation>
        <Address>D&#252;sseldorf</Address>
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    <SubjectGroup>
      <SubjectheadingDDB>610</SubjectheadingDDB>
      <SectionHeading language="en">Patient safety</SectionHeading>
      <SectionHeading language="de">Patientensicherheit</SectionHeading>
    </SubjectGroup>
    <DateReceived>20190204</DateReceived>
    <DateRevised>20190204</DateRevised>
    <DateAccepted>20190204</DateAccepted>
    <DatePublishedList>
      
    <DatePublished>20190315</DatePublished></DatePublishedList>
    <Language>engl</Language>
    <LanguageTranslation>germ</LanguageTranslation>
    <License license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
      <AltText language="en">This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</AltText>
      <AltText language="de">Dieser Artikel ist ein Open-Access-Artikel und steht unter den Lizenzbedingungen der Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (Namensnennung).</AltText>
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    <SourceGroup>
      <Journal>
        <ISSN>2366-5017</ISSN>
        <Volume>36</Volume>
        <Issue>2</Issue>
        <JournalTitle>GMS Journal for Medical Education</JournalTitle>
        <JournalTitleAbbr>GMS J Med Educ</JournalTitleAbbr>
        <IssueTitle>Patient safety/Patientensicherheit</IssueTitle>
      </Journal>
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    <ArticleNo>21</ArticleNo>
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    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="Introduction">
      <MainHeadline>Introduction</MainHeadline><Pgraph><Mark2>&#8220;Patient safety is a core attitude and thus needs to be introduced early and then reinforced throughout postgraduate education and continuing professional development.&#8221; (Stefan Lindgren, President of the World Federation for Medical Education)</Mark2></Pgraph><Pgraph>Beginning in the 1990s, studies of hospital safety and quality from around the world have consistently found problems with patient safety and quality <TextLink reference="1"></TextLink>. There has been a notable increase in awareness of the problem, with major efforts in the past two decades to improve the safety of medical care. A study conducted for the World Health Organization found that seven types of adverse events cause 43 million injuries a year, making preventable harm the world&#8217;s twentieth most common cause of overall morbidity and mortality <TextLink reference="2"></TextLink>. Others have suggested that medical errors are even more common <TextLink reference="3"></TextLink>. A chilling statistic from WHO was that in high income countries, on average, one of every ten patients hospitalized suffers a serious, preventable adverse event <TextLink reference="4"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Although patients continue to be harmed by health care, there has been some progress <TextLink reference="5"></TextLink>. Since 2000, it has become widely understood and accepted that &#8220;it&#8217;s the system&#8221; &#8211; it is the health care system that creates hazards and harm, and that also creates patient safety, rather than individual providers <TextLink reference="6"></TextLink>. However, there is a deeply seated, pernicious habit for people, the public and health care managers to blame specific medical errors exclusively on individual health professionals. On the other hand, it is certainly true that individuals are an integral and indispensable component of the health care system. Individuals also act as members of teams, and interact with other parts of the system <TextLink reference="7"></TextLink>. Individual must feel they are accountable too. If the balance of accountability swings too far, and we rely entirely on searching for systems solutions, the important process of changing individual behaviors will be lost <TextLink reference="8"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Regardless of whether you take an individual or system perspective on the causation of medical error, there is a need to educate clinicians on how to deliver safer care. We believe that patient safety should be a new basic science for professional education. To accomplish this, major reforms are needed in health professions education. However, we appreciate that there are challenges associated with incorporating patient safety into education and training. </Pgraph><Pgraph>This special issue on patient safety in medical education in Germany represents an important step to increasing awareness of patient safety as an important element in the training of health professionals. The papers in this issue help to advance the field, in both education and in research on education.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Einleitung">
      <MainHeadline>Einleitung</MainHeadline><Pgraph><Mark2>&#8222;Die Patientensicherheit ist eine Grundhaltung und muss daher fr&#252;hzeitig eingef&#252;hrt und dann w&#228;hrend der postgradualen Ausbildung und der beruflichen Weiterbildung gest&#228;rkt werden&#8220; (Stefan Lindgren, Pr&#228;sident der World Federation for Medical Education) </Mark2></Pgraph><Pgraph>Seit den 1990er Jahren haben Studien zur Sicherheit und Qualit&#228;t von Krankenh&#228;usern auf der ganzen Welt immer wieder Probleme im Bereich der Patientensicherheit und -qualit&#228;t festgestellt <TextLink reference="1"></TextLink>. Das Problembewusstsein ist deutlich gestiegen. So wurden in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten gro&#223;e Anstrengungen unternommen, um die Sicherheit der medizinischen Versorgung zu verbessern. Eine f&#252;r die Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) durchgef&#252;hrte Studie ergab, dass sieben Arten von unerw&#252;nschten medizinischen Zwischenf&#228;llen j&#228;hrlich 43 Millionen Verletzungen verursachen, vermeidbare Sch&#228;den, welche die zwanzigh&#228;ufigste Ursache f&#252;r Morbidit&#228;t und Mortalit&#228;t weiltweit ausmachen <TextLink reference="2"></TextLink>. Andere Studien gehen davon aus, dass medizinische Fehler sogar noch h&#228;ufiger sind <TextLink reference="3"></TextLink>. Eine beunruhigende Statistik der WHO zeigte auf, dass in L&#228;ndern mit hohem Einkommen durchschnittlich jeder zehnte Krankenhauspatient in ein schwerwiegendes, vermeidbares unerw&#252;nschtes Ereignis involviert ist <TextLink reference="4"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Obwohl Patientinnen und Patienten weiterhin durch die Gesundheitsf&#252;rsorge gesch&#228;digt werden, wurden dennoch einige Fortschritte erzielt <TextLink reference="5"></TextLink>. Seit 2000 ist allgemein bekannt und akzeptiert, dass &#8222;es das System ist&#8220;. Es ist haupts&#228;chlich das Gesundheitssystem, welches Gefahren und Sch&#228;den verursacht, aber auch Patientensicherheit schaffen kann und nicht etwa einzelne Personen aus dem Gesundheitswesen <TextLink reference="6"></TextLink>. Verantwortliche im Gesundheitswesen sowie der &#214;ffentlichkeit neigen allerdings dazu, spezifische medizinische Fehler ausschlie&#223;lich den einzelnen medizinischen Fachkr&#228;ften zuzuschreiben. Andererseits muss nat&#252;rlich einger&#228;umt werden, dass Einzelpersonen einen integralen und unverzichtbaren Bestandteil des Gesundheitssystems darstellen, als Mitglieder von Teams fungieren und mit anderen Teilen des Gesundheitssystems interagieren <TextLink reference="7"></TextLink>. Auch der oder die Einzelne muss sich also verantwortlich f&#252;hlen. Wenn man sich n&#228;mlich einzig auf die Suche nach Systeml&#246;sungen konzentriert, geht dies zu Lasten des wichtigen Prozesses, in dem individuelle Verhaltensweisen ver&#228;ndert werden <TextLink reference="8"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Unabh&#228;ngig davon, ob man eine individuelle oder systembezogene Perspektive auf die Ursachen von medizinischen Fehlern einnimmt, ist es notwendig, das klinische Personal darin zu schulen, wie eine sicherere Behandlung gew&#228;hrleistet werden kann. Wir glauben, dass die Patientensicherheit eine neue Grundlagenwissenschaft f&#252;r die medizinische Ausbildung darstellen sollte. Um dies zu erreichen, sind umfassende Reformen in der Ausbildung zu Gesundheitsberufen erforderlich. Wir sind uns jedoch bewusst, dass die Integration des Themas Patientensicherheit in Ausbildung und Training mit Herausforderungen verbunden ist.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Das Erscheinen dieser Sonderausgabe zur Patientensicherheit in der medizinischen Ausbildung in Deutschland ist ein wichtiger Schritt, um das Bewusstsein f&#252;r die Bedeutung der Patientensicherheit zu sch&#228;rfen. Die Beitr&#228;ge in dieser Ausgabe sollen dabei helfen, dieses Feld in Forschung und Lehre voranzubringen.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="The problem">
      <MainHeadline>The problem</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Schools in the health professions, including medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry and others, provide limited education on patient safety. In medicine, the traditional curricular focus is on basic science and medical knowledge.  Residency and other post-graduate training add a focus on technical expertise. Other health professions, including nursing, pharmacy and health technology maintain the primary focus on acquiring facts and knowledge. None pay sufficient attention to the key concepts, attitudes and skills necessary to practicing safely and spurring improvements in care.  </Pgraph><Pgraph>In addition to the lack of basic knowledge and skills, the prevailing culture and work environment in hospitals and other health care organizations work against many of the prerequisites for safe practice. In many organizations there is a pernicious culture of shame, blame and punishment surrounding medical errors, and a deny-and-defend stance in response to patients and families. A &#8220;hidden curriculum&#8221; reflecting this culture sabotages attempts at classroom education <TextLink reference="9"></TextLink>. Together, these conditions prevent awareness, taking action, and learning from errors.</Pgraph><Pgraph>To address these gaps, health professions schools and training programs will need to refocus their goals, away from the mere acquisition of knowledge and facts. Programs will need to make room in the curriculum for new concepts, attitudes, behaviors and skills, and provide opportunities for trainees to implement them in practice.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Das Problem">
      <MainHeadline>Das Problem</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Fachbereiche im Gesundheitswesen, wie etwa Medizin, Krankenpflege, Pharmazie, Zahnmedizin und andere, bieten nur eine eingeschr&#228;nkte Schulung in Patientensicherheit. In der Medizin liegt der traditionelle Schwerpunkt des Lehrplans auf der Grundlagenwissenschaft und medizinischem Wissen. Die Ausbildung zum Facharzt&#47;zur Fach&#228;rztin und andere postgraduale Schulungen haben zudem die technische Expertise im Blick. Andere Gesundheitsberufe, einschlie&#223;lich Krankenpflege, Pharmazie und Gesundheitstechnologie, behalten den Erwerb von Fakten und Wissen als Schwerpunkt bei. Dabei werden den Schl&#252;sselkonzepten, Einstellungen und Fertigkeiten, die erforderlich sind, um sicher zu praktizieren und Verbesserungen in der medizinischen Versorgung zu erreichen, nicht gen&#252;gend Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Zus&#228;tzlich zum Mangel an grundlegenden Kenntnissen und Fertigkeiten beeintr&#228;chtigen die vorherrschende Kultur und das Arbeitsumfeld in Krankenh&#228;usern und anderen Gesundheitsorganisationen die Bedingungen f&#252;r eine sichere Praxis. In vielen Organisationen herrscht eine sch&#228;dliche Kultur aus Scham, Schuldzuschreibung und Bestrafung im Zusammenhang mit medizinischen Fehlern sowie eine Haltung des Leugnens und der Rechtfertigung gegen&#252;ber Patienten und Patientinnen und ihren Familien. Ein Lehrplan, der diese Kultur unterschwellig widerspiegelt, gewisserma&#223;en ein &#8222;heimlicher Lehrplan&#8220;, sabotiert entsprechende Versuche der Unterrichtsausbildung <TextLink reference="9"></TextLink>. Zusammengenommen beintr&#228;chtigen diese Bedingungen das Problembewusstsein, das Ergreifen von Ma&#223;nahmen und das Lernen aus Fehlern. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Um diese L&#252;cken zu schlie&#223;en, m&#252;ssen die Schulen und Ausbildungsprogramme der Gesundheitsberufe ihre Ziele neu ausrichten, wobei sie sich nicht ausschlie&#223;lich auf den Erwerb von Wissen und Fakten konzentrieren d&#252;rfen. Die Programme m&#252;ssen im Lehrplan Raum f&#252;r neue Konzepte, Einstellungen, Verhaltensweisen und F&#228;higkeiten schaffen und den Auszubildenden die M&#246;glichkeit geben, sie entsprechend in die Praxis umzusetzen.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="Examples of education">
      <MainHeadline>Examples of education</MainHeadline><Pgraph>There is accumulating evidence that education can help to improve patient safety and health care quality. Safety curricula are generally popular among trainees and have resulted in increased knowledge of safety and quality improvement (QI) concepts, and led to improvement in care processes <TextLink reference="10"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Medical schools are beginning to introduce patient safety training into the undergraduate curriculum <TextLink reference="11"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="12"></TextLink>. At the Johns Hopkins University in the U.S., a 10-hour curriculum was instituted for first year medical students, and showed improvements in knowledge and attitudes, including future commitment to patient safety <TextLink reference="13"></TextLink>. This has been followed by a 3-day curriculum for second year medical students, shortly before they transition from classroom to clinical wards, including lectures and hands-on experiences, which showed advances in knowledge, self-efficacy and systems thinking <TextLink reference="14"></TextLink>. It is noteworthy that this curriculum consistently receives the highest evaluations from students among all of the special topics taught in the second year. </Pgraph><Pgraph>In the UK, a 5-hour curriculum for senior medical students on understanding error in health care was shown to have improved knowledge <TextLink reference="11"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Aiming to implement patient safety curricula in the medical education in German-Speaking countries, the committee for Patient Safety and Error Management of the German Association for Medical Education introduced in 2016 a Learning Objective Catalogue addressing patient safety topics and error management in Medical Education. This catalogue serves as basis for a deepened discussion of patient safety issues among medical faculties and as disciplinary and content-related orientation guide for embedding patient safety teaching courses into existing medical curricula <TextLink reference="15"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="16"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>In practice, studies have found education to benefit patient outcomes. Aiken and colleagues showed that hospitals in the U.S. with higher levels of nursing education had lower patient mortality rates <TextLink reference="17"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="18"></TextLink>. Berry and colleagues demonstrated that improved safety culture and teamwork climate were associated with decreases in patient harm and hospital mortality <TextLink reference="19"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Ausbildungsmodelle">
      <MainHeadline>Ausbildungsmodelle</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Es gibt immer mehr Anhaltspunkte daf&#252;r, dass eine angemessene Schulung zur Verbesserung der Patientensicherheit und der Qualit&#228;t der medizinischen Versorgung beitragen kann. Lehrpl&#228;ne zur Patientensicherheit sind im Allgemeinen bei Auszubildenden beliebt und haben zu einem besseren Verst&#228;ndnis der Konzepte zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit und Qualit&#228;t und letztendlich zu optimierten Pflegeprozessen gef&#252;hrt <TextLink reference="10"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Universit&#228;ten haben damit begonnen, Schulungen zur Patientensicherheit in das Grundstudium der Medizin aufzunehmen <TextLink reference="11"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="12"></TextLink>. An der Johns Hopkins University in den USA wurde eine zehnst&#252;ndige Schulung f&#252;r Medizinstudierende im ersten Jahr eingef&#252;hrt, die zu Verbesserungen hinsichtlich Wissens und Einstellungen sowie einer Zunahme des Engagements im Bereich der Patientensicherheit f&#252;hrte <TextLink reference="13"></TextLink>. Daran schlie&#223;t sich eine dreit&#228;gige Schulung f&#252;r Medizinstudierende im zweiten Jahr an und zwar kurz vor ihrem Wechsel vom H&#246;rsaal zur Klinik. Durch Vorlesungen und praktische &#220;bungen erzielen die Studierenden Fortschritte in Bezug auf Wissen, Selbstwirksamkeit und Systemdenken <TextLink reference="14"></TextLink>. Bemerkenswert ist, dass dieser Lehrplan durchgehend unter allen im zweiten Jahr unterrichteten Spezialthemen die bestm&#246;glichen Bewertungen von den Studierenden erh&#228;lt. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Dar&#252;ber hinaus wiesen &#228;ltere Medizinstudierende, die in Gro&#223;britannien eine f&#252;nfst&#252;ndige Schulung zum Thema Fehler in der Gesundheitsvorsorge besuchten, ein verbessertes Wissen auf <TextLink reference="11"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Mit dem Ziel, in den deutschsprachigen L&#228;ndern das Thema Patientensicherheit in das Medizinstudium aufzunehmen, hat der Ausschuss f&#252;r Patientensicherheit und Fehlermanagement der Gesellschaft f&#252;r medizinische Ausbildung im Jahr 2016 einen Lernzielkatalog entwickelt, welcher Themen der Patientensicherheit und des Fehlermanagements in der medizinischen Grundausbildung behandelt. Dieser Katalog soll als Ausgangspunkt f&#252;r eine vertiefte Auseinandersetzung der medizinischen Fakult&#228;ten mit diesen Themen dienen sowie als fachlich-inhaltliche Orientierungshilfe f&#252;r die Einbettung von Lehrg&#228;ngen zur Patientensicherheit in bestehende Lehrpl&#228;ne des Medizinstudiums <TextLink reference="15"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="16"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>In der Praxis haben Studien haben gezeigt, dass die Ergebnisse f&#252;r die Patienten von Nutzen sind. Aiken und Kollegen fanden heraus, dass Krankenh&#228;user in den USA mit besserer Krankenpflegeausbildung eine niedrigere Patientensterblichkeit aufwiesen <TextLink reference="17"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="18"></TextLink>. Berry und Kollegen demonstrierten, dass eine verbesserte Sicherheitskultur und ein besseres Betriebsklima mit einer Abnahme der Patientensch&#228;den und Krankenhaussterblichkeit verbunden waren <TextLink reference="19"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="What should be taught&#63;">
      <MainHeadline>What should be taught&#63;</MainHeadline><Pgraph>The Institute of Medicine&#8217;s groundbreaking report <Mark2>To Err Is Human</Mark2> in 1999 <TextLink reference="6"></TextLink> and subsequent publications have influenced recommendations worldwide to promote safer health care. These recommendations have favored competencies over content, with the goal of changing the behavior of health professionals.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Competencies encompass patient safety within the broader domain of practice. In its report Patient Safety Achieving a New Standard for Care, the Institute of Medicine identified 5 core competencies which all health professional should be able to demonstrate <TextLink reference="20"></TextLink>. These included the provision of patient-centered care, the ability to work in interdisciplinary teams, employment of evidence-based practices, application of quality improvement concepts, and utilization of informatics.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Several influential groups and authoritative bodies have launched efforts to identify sets of competencies important to promote safer health care practice <TextLink reference="20"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="21"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="22"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="23"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="24"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="25"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>The American College of Graduate Medical Education and the American Board of Medical Specialties <TextLink reference="22"></TextLink> identified competencies within the domains of patient care, medical knowledge, practice-based learning and improvement, interpersonal and communication skills, professionalism, and systems-based practice. These are shown in table 1 <ImgLink imgNo="1" imgType="table"/>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>The World Health Organization Patient Safety Programme identified 11 key topics to be covered. This list was initially based on the Australian Patient Safety Education Framework <TextLink reference="26"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="27"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>The first topic regards the concept and definition of <Mark1>patient safety</Mark1> itself. <Mark1>Human factors</Mark1> describe the interaction of workers within the work system of health care, and how specific internal factors (knowledge, skills) and external factors (stress, ineffective communication, production pressure) may be associated with medical errors and adverse events. <Mark1>System</Mark1> failures and patient harm can result from factors originating from multiple levels within the health care system. These system levels include the patient, the task, the individual, the team, tools, management and organization. Communication and <Mark1>teamwork</Mark1> involve patients and their carers, as well as interdisciplinary collaboration to ensure high quality care. The ability to see systems and failures within them, and to communicate incidents to colleagues are crucial to <Mark1>learning from errors.</Mark1> The ability to use <Mark1>quality improvement</Mark1> tools allows closing the loop after these events. <Mark1>Engaging with patients</Mark1> and their caregivers is essential to optimizing safety. This includes behaving ethically and appropriately in <Mark1>managing clinical risk</Mark1> and being open with patients about medical errors. <Mark1>Infection control</Mark1> identifies potential hazards and prevents health care associated infections particularly through the application of universal precautions. Invasive procedures are a particularly high-risk part of health care; harm can be reduced through the judicious use of checklists and standard operating procedures. <Mark1>Medication safety</Mark1> addresses the ubiquitous risks associated with all of the phases of medication use, particularly for different age groups, high hazard medications and transitions of care. </Pgraph><Pgraph>There is an increasing number of patient safety curricula available, and reviews of their successes and challenges <TextLink reference="10"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="28"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="29"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="30"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="31"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="32"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="33"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="34"></TextLink>.  The World Health Organization developed a curriculum guide to provide medical students with essential patient safety lessons to allow them to practice safely <TextLink reference="26"></TextLink>. It includes a teacher&#8217;s guide, and a comprehensive, ready-to-use, topic-based programme with a full set of slides. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Recognizing that other professionals provide the majority of care to people in all countries, the medical student curriculum was followed closely by a more general multi-professional patient safety curriculum guide. This aimed to aid in the implementation of training in inpatient safety, including in the fields of midwifery, nursing and pharmacy, dentistry, and medical technology <TextLink reference="35"></TextLink>. </Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Was sollte gelehrt werden&#63;">
      <MainHeadline>Was sollte gelehrt werden&#63;</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Der bahnbrechende Bericht <Mark2>To Err is Human</Mark2> aus dem Jahr 1999 des Institute of Medicine <TextLink reference="6"></TextLink> und nachfolgende Ver&#246;ffentlichungen haben weltweite Empfehlungen zur F&#246;rderung einer sichereren Gesundheitsversorgung beeinflusst. Diese Empfehlungen lenken den Fokus eher auf Kompetenzen als auf Inhalte, um das Verhalten von Gesundheitspersonal zu &#228;ndern.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Kompetenzen umfassen die Patientensicherheit im weiteren Kontext der Praxis. In seinem Bericht <Mark2>Patient Safety Achieving</Mark2> <Mark2>a New Standard for Care</Mark2> hat das <Mark2>Institute for Medicine</Mark2> f&#252;nf Kernkompetenzen identifiziert, die alle medizinischen Fachkr&#228;fte nachweisen sollten <TextLink reference="20"></TextLink>. Dazu geh&#246;ren die Bereitstellung patientenorientierter medizinischer Versorgung, die F&#228;higkeit zur Arbeit in interdisziplin&#228;ren Teams, der Einsatz evidenzbasierter Praktiken, die Anwendung von Qualit&#228;tsverbesserungskonzepten und die Nutzung von Informatik.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Mehrere einflussreiche Gruppen und ma&#223;gebende Einrichtungen haben Anstrengungen unternommen, um Kompetenzen zu ermitteln, die f&#252;r die F&#246;rderung eines sichereren Gesundheitswesens wichtig sind <TextLink reference="20"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="21"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="22"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="23"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="24"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="25"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Das <Mark2>American College of Graduate Medical Education</Mark2> und das <Mark2>American Board of Medical Specialties</Mark2> <TextLink reference="22"></TextLink> definierten Kompetenzen in den Bereichen Patientenversorgung, medizinisches Wissen, praxisorientiertes Lernen und Weiterentwicklung, zwischenmenschliche und kommunikative F&#228;higkeiten, Professionalit&#228;t und systembasierte Praxis (siehe Tabelle 1 <ImgLink imgNo="1" imgType="table"/>).</Pgraph><Pgraph>Das Programm zur Patientensicherheit der Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) nennt elf Hauptthemen, die im Rahmen der medizinischen Ausbildung behandelt werden sollten. Diese Liste basierte urspr&#252;nglich auf dem <Mark2>Australia Patient Safety Education Framework</Mark2> <TextLink reference="26"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="27"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Das erste Thema betrifft das Konzept und die Definition der <Mark1>Patientensicherheit</Mark1>. <Mark1>Human Factors</Mark1> beschreiben die Interaktion der Arbeitnehmer innerhalb des Arbeitssystems der Gesundheitsf&#252;rsorge und wie bestimmte interne Faktoren (Wissen, F&#228;higkeiten) und externe Faktoren (Stress, ineffektive Kommunikation, Produktionsdruck) mit medizinischen Fehlern und unerw&#252;nschten Ereignissen in Verbindung gebracht werden k&#246;nnen. <Mark1>System</Mark1>fehler und Patientensch&#228;den k&#246;nnen auf Faktoren zur&#252;ckgef&#252;hrt werden, die auf mehreren Ebenen des Gesundheitssystems auftreten. Diese Systemebenen umfassen den Patienten, Aufgaben, Einzelpersonen, das Team, Tools, das Management und die Organisation. Kommunikation und <Mark1>Teamarbeit</Mark1> schlie&#223;en Patientinnen und Patienten und ihre Betreuungspersonen sowie die interdisziplin&#228;re Zusammenarbeit ein, um eine qualitativ hochwertige Versorgung zu gew&#228;hrleisten. Die F&#228;higkeit, Systeme und die in ihnen verborgenen Fehler zu erfassen und Vorf&#228;lle an Kollegen zu kommunizieren, ist entscheidend f&#252;r das <Mark1>Lernen aus Fehlern</Mark1>. Die M&#246;glichkeit, <Mark1>Qualit&#228;tsverbesserungs-Tools</Mark1> zu verwenden, erm&#246;glicht das Schlie&#223;en von potentiellen L&#252;cken nach diesen Ereignissen. <Mark1>Die Zusammenarbeit mit Patientinnen und Patienten</Mark1> und ihren Betreuungspersonen ist f&#252;r die Optimierung der Sicherheit unerl&#228;sslich. Dazu geh&#246;rt ein ethisch korrektes und angemessenes Verhalten bei der <Mark1>Bew&#228;ltigung klinischer Risiken</Mark1> und Ehrlichkeit gegen&#252;ber Patientinnen und Patienten im Zusammenhang mit medizinischen Fehlern. Die <Mark1>Infektionskontrolle</Mark1> identifiziert potenzielle Gefahren und verhindert Infektionen im Zusammenhang mit der Gesundheitsf&#252;rsorge, insbesondere durch die Anwendung universeller Vorsichtsma&#223;nahmen. <Mark1>Invasive Verfahren</Mark1> sind ein besonders risikoreicher Teil der Gesundheitsversorgung. Sch&#228;den k&#246;nnen durch den sinnvollen Einsatz von Checklisten und Standardarbeitsanweisungen reduziert werden. Die <Mark1>Arzneimittelsicherheit</Mark1> befasst sich mit den allgegenw&#228;rtigen Risiken, die mit allen Phasen der Medikamenteneinnahme verbunden sind, insbesondere f&#252;r verschiedene Altersgruppen, Hochrisiko-Medikamente und &#220;berg&#228;nge in der Pflege.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Es gibt eine zunehmende Anzahl von Lehrpl&#228;nen f&#252;r Patientensicherheit sowie &#220;berpr&#252;fungen ihrer Erfolge und Herausforderungen <TextLink reference="10"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="28"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="29"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="30"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="31"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="32"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="33"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="34"></TextLink>. Die WHO hat einen Leitfaden f&#252;r Lehrpl&#228;ne entwickelt, um Medizinstudierenden grundlegende Lektionen in Bereich der Patientensicherheit zu vermitteln, die es ihnen erm&#246;glichen, sicher zu praktizieren <TextLink reference="26"></TextLink>. Es enth&#228;lt ein Lehrerhandbuch und ein umfassendes, einsatzbereites, themenbasiertes Programm mit einem vollst&#228;ndigen Foliensatz.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Aus der Erkenntnis heraus, dass Menschen in allen L&#228;ndern mehrheitlich von anderen Fachkr&#228;ften als Medizinerinnen und Medizinern betreut werden, folgte unmittelbar auf den Lehrplan f&#252;r die Medizinstudierenden ein allgemeiner, multiprofessioneller Lehrplan f&#252;r Patientensicherheit. Ziel war es, die Durchf&#252;hrung von Schulungen zur station&#228;ren Sicherheit zu unterst&#252;tzen, unter anderem in den Bereichen Geburtshilfe, Pflege, Pharmazie, Zahnmedizin und Medizintechnik <TextLink reference="35"></TextLink>. </Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="Challenges to implementation">
      <MainHeadline>Challenges to implementation</MainHeadline><Pgraph>It is sometimes said that the hardest thing to do in academic medicine is to get a new course added to the medical school curriculum. Universities are well known for their professional bureaucracy, and this includes resistance to change. There is a tendency to preserve existing organizational structure, even when it is obvious that it fails to serve institutional goals.  </Pgraph><Pgraph>Barriers have been noted to making changes to higher education in general, related to attitudes, existing structures, and resources <TextLink reference="36"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="37"></TextLink>. Published literature suggests that it can also be challenging to introduce patient safety into health professions schools <TextLink reference="38"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Human factors barriers to making changes to higher education in general include:</Pgraph><Pgraph><OrderedList><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="1" numString="1.">Lack of awareness (including lack of interest, engagement, involvement), support, professionalism, policy making and recognition</ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="2" numString="2.">Unsupported structure, conservative disciplinary organization of higher education, inefficient communication, resistance to change, overcrowded curriculum, focus on content-based learning</ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="3" numString="3.">Need for more resources including funding, work pressure and lack of time, lack of access to information, lack of consistent legislation and lack of physical place <TextLink reference="36"></TextLink></ListItem></OrderedList></Pgraph><Pgraph>There are specific challenges to incorporating patient safety into health professions education. These include </Pgraph><Pgraph><OrderedList><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="1" numString="1.">lack of awareness, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="2" numString="2.">lack of agreement, including the hidden curriculum, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="3" numString="3.">lack of engagement and involvement, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="4" numString="4.">lack of leadership, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="5" numString="5.">the discipline-based structure of medical science and health care, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="6" numString="6.">resistance to change, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="7" numString="7.">overcrowded curriculum, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="8" numString="8.">historical focus on content-based learning, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="9" numString="9.">lack of know-how and support for educators, including funding </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="10" numString="10.">competing work pressures and lack of time, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="11" numString="11.">evidence gaps in best practices.</ListItem></OrderedList></Pgraph><Pgraph>Lack of awareness and lack of agreement are recognized barriers to physician adherence with guidelines and behavior change <TextLink reference="39"></TextLink>. Course directors are reluctant to accept the need for patient safety science <TextLink reference="40"></TextLink>. Many need to be convinced of the importance of this subject in relation to other subjects for students e.g., foundational sciences like anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry. </Pgraph><Pgraph>A hidden curriculum reflecting &#8220;real world practice&#8221; is ingrained in the culture and behavior of health care organizations. This hidden curriculum perpetuates hierarchies of authority and unprofessional behavior, sabotages teamwork, and reinforces paternalistic attitudes towards patients <TextLink reference="9"></TextLink>. Students and trainees witness how their more experienced colleagues behave, contrary to the lessons they might have been taught in the classroom. These factors contribute to a lack of engagement and involvement by faculty members, which can be exacerbated by the lack of visionary and enabling leadership to advance the patient safety agenda.</Pgraph><Pgraph>The discipline-based structure of medical schools is itself a barrier <TextLink reference="40"></TextLink>. Faculty members in individual departments may be reluctant to relinquish space on the curriculum and the status it implies. In a recent personal experience at our own institution, an attempt to teach medical and nursing students together about patient safety was frustrated by conflicting calendars for the respective schools.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Professional schools are already struggling with curricula that are densely packed. There is a limited amount of clinical time, which may reduce the opportunities for students to be exposed to common patient safety issues. Opportunities for interdisciplinary training in practice settings are even more limited <TextLink reference="41"></TextLink>. In addition, faculty are accustomed to providing content-based rather than competency-based learning. There may be an insufficient number of faculty to teach in this area, and existing faculty may be uncomfortable teaching material outside of their own discipline and expertise <TextLink reference="42"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Thus, top leaders in professional schools and academic medical centers have an important role to play in making successful curricular change. This requires creating a milieu in which change can be accepted and made. Insufficient support in terms of time, financing, and guidance are important barriers to adoption of reforms and their implementation <TextLink reference="43"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Herausforderungen bei der Umsetzung">
      <MainHeadline>Herausforderungen bei der Umsetzung</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Es wird manchmal gesagt, dass es in der akademischen Medizin am schwierigsten sei, einen neuen Kurs in den Lehrplan aufzunehmen. Universit&#228;ten sind bekannt f&#252;r ihre professionelle B&#252;rokratie, wozu auch der Widerstand gegen Ver&#228;nderung z&#228;hlt. Es besteht oftmals die Tendenz, die bestehende Organisationsstruktur beizubehalten, auch wenn offensichtlich ist, dass sie den institutionellen Zielen nicht dienlich ist. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Es wurden Hindernisse bei &#196;nderungen der Hochschulbildung im Allgemeinen festgestellt, die sich auf Einstellungen, bestehende Strukturen und Ressourcen beziehen <TextLink reference="36"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="37"></TextLink>. Ein schwieriges Unterfangen scheint auch die Einf&#252;hrung von Patientensicherheit in Schulen f&#252;r Gesundheitsberufe darzustellen, wie es eine Studie von Leotsakos et al. <TextLink reference="38"></TextLink> nahelegt.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Zu den Hindernissen bei der Umgestaltung der Hochschulbildung z&#228;hlen folgende:</Pgraph><Pgraph><OrderedList><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="1" numString="1.">Mangel an Bewusstsein (u.a. mangelndes Interesse, Engagement, Einbindung), Unterst&#252;tzung, Professionalit&#228;t, Politikgestaltung und Anerkennung</ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="2" numString="2.">Konservative Disziplinarstruktur der Hochschulbildung, ineffiziente Kommunikation, Widerstand gegen Ver&#228;nderungen, &#252;berf&#252;llter Lehrplan, Konzentration auf inhaltliches Lernen</ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="3" numString="3.">Bedarf an mehr Ressourcen, einschlie&#223;lich Finanzierung; Arbeitsdruck und Zeitmangel; fehlender Zugang zu Informationen, Mangel an einheitlichen Rechtsvorschriften und Platzmangel <TextLink reference="36"></TextLink></ListItem></OrderedList></Pgraph><Pgraph>Die Einbeziehung der Patientensicherheit in die Ausbildung zu Gesundheitsberufen ist auch mit besonderen Herausforderungen verbunden. Dazu geh&#246;ren </Pgraph><Pgraph><OrderedList><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="1" numString="1.">mangelndes Problembewusstsein, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="2" numString="2.">mangelnde &#220;bereinstimmung, einschlie&#223;lich des heimlichen Lehrplans, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="3" numString="3.">mangelndes Engagement und fehlende Beteiligung, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="4" numString="4.">mangelnde F&#252;hrung, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="5" numString="5.">die disziplinorientierte Struktur der medizinischen Wissenschaft und Gesundheitsf&#252;rsorge, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="6" numString="6.">Widerstand gegen Ver&#228;nderung, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="7" numString="7.">&#252;berf&#252;llter Lehrplan, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="8" numString="8.">historischer Fokus auf inhaltsbasiertes Lernen, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="9" numString="9.">Mangel an Know-how und Unterst&#252;tzung f&#252;r Lehrkr&#228;fte, einschlie&#223;lich Finanzierung, </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="10" numString="10.">hoher Arbeitsdruck, parallele Arbeitsanforderungen und Zeitmangel sowie </ListItem><ListItem level="1" levelPosition="11" numString="11.">Beweisl&#252;cken bei bew&#228;hrten Verfahren.</ListItem></OrderedList></Pgraph><Pgraph>Mangelndes Bewusstsein und mangelnde &#220;bereinstimmung sind bekannte Hindernisse bei der Einhaltung von Richtlinien durch &#196;rztinnen und &#196;rzte sowie im Hinblick auf Verhaltens&#228;nderungen <TextLink reference="39"></TextLink>. Kursleitende str&#228;uben sich oftmals, Patientensicherheit als wichtigen Forschungszweig anzuerkennen <TextLink reference="40"></TextLink>. Viele m&#252;ssen von der Relevanz dieses Faches f&#252;r andere F&#228;cher &#252;berzeugt werden, was bei den Grundlagenwissenschaften wie Anatomie, Physiologie und Biochemie nicht der Fall ist. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Ein heimlicher Lehrplan, der die &#8222;Praxis der realen Welt&#8220; widerspiegelt, ist tief in der Kultur und im Verhalten von Gesundheitsorganisationen verankert. Dieser heimliche Lehrplan h&#228;lt autorit&#228;re und hierarchische Strukturen und unprofessionelles Verhalten aufrecht, sabotiert die Teamarbeit und st&#228;rkt die paternalistische Einstellung gegen&#252;ber Patientinnen und Patienten <TextLink reference="9"></TextLink>. Studierende und Auszubildende beobachten, wie sich ihre erfahreneren Kolleginnen und Kollegen verhalten, kontr&#228;r zu dem, was sie wom&#246;glich im H&#246;rsaal gelernt haben. Diese Faktoren tragen unter den Fakult&#228;tsmitgliedern zu mangelndem Engagement und unzureichender Beteiligung bei. Dies kann durch den Mangel an vision&#228;rer und bef&#228;higender F&#252;hrung, welche die Patientensicherheit mehr in den Fokus r&#252;cken w&#252;rde, noch verst&#228;rkt werden. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Die disziplinorientierte Struktur der medizinischen Fakult&#228;ten ist selbst ein Hindernis <TextLink reference="40"></TextLink>. Fakult&#228;tsmitglieder in einzelnen Abteilungen verzichten m&#246;glicherweise nur ungern auf Raum im Lehrplan und den damit verbundenen Status. Auch an unserer eigenen Universit&#228;t wurde der Versuch, Studierende der Medizin und der Pflege gemeinsam in Patientensicherheit zu unterrichten, durch miteinander kollidierende Zeitpl&#228;ne der jeweiligen Fakult&#228;ten entt&#228;uscht. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Auch Fachschulen k&#228;mpfen bereits mit dicht gedr&#228;ngten Lehrpl&#228;nen. Da die in der Klinik verbrachte Zeit begrenzt ist, haben die Studierenden weniger M&#246;glichkeiten, mit h&#228;ufig auftretenden Problemen der Patientensicherheit konfrontiert zu werden. Die M&#246;glichkeiten f&#252;r ein interdisziplin&#228;res Training in Praxissituationen sind sogar noch eingeschr&#228;nkter <TextLink reference="41"></TextLink>. Au&#223;erdem sind die Fakult&#228;ten daran gew&#246;hnt, inhaltliches statt kompetenzbasiertes Lernen anzubieten. Zudem herrscht oftmals ein Mangel an Lehrpersonal und diejenigen Lehrkr&#228;fte, die vorhanden sind, schrecken manchmal davor zur&#252;ck, Themen zu unterrichten, die au&#223;erhalb ihrer Disziplin und Expertise liegen <TextLink reference="42"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>F&#252;hrungskr&#228;fte in Fachschulen und Universit&#228;tskliniken spielen daher eine wichtige Rolle f&#252;r einen erfolgreiche Ver&#228;nderung des Lehrplans. Dies erfordert die Schaffung eines Umfelds, in dem Ver&#228;nderungen akzeptiert und vorgenommen werden k&#246;nnen. Unzureichende Unterst&#252;tzung in Bezug auf Zeit, Finanzierung und Beratung sind gro&#223;e Hindernisse bei der Genehmigung von Reformen und deren Umsetzung <TextLink reference="43"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="What should be done">
      <MainHeadline>What should be done</MainHeadline><Pgraph>To make changes in curriculum, instill competencies and culture in trainees, and ultimately affect changes in behavior, action will be needed on the part of multiple stakeholders in health professions education and health care organizations.</Pgraph><Pgraph>For an organization embarking on this kind of curricular change, communication and engagement of educators and staff are essential from the start <TextLink reference="44"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="45"></TextLink>. It is important to let people know the rationale for the proposed changes, and the process of change that will occur. It is crucial to provide professional development opportunities to staff who will be involved. This should include relevant training and activities that will allow them to engage in the change process. </Pgraph><Pgraph>The Lucian Leape Institute of the National Patient Safety Foundation convened an expert group that produced recommendations for improving education in patient safety <TextLink reference="46"></TextLink>. Although they were developed in the US for medical school reform, most of these recommendations are widely applicable to the international context and for other professional schools. The recommendations focus first on developing learning cultures that emphasize safety, professionalism, collaboration and transparency. There is an emphasis on promoting interpersonal skills and interdisciplinary teamwork. Resources should be provided to support faculty development of the skills needed to deliver the curricula. Changes should extend to selecting students with the attributes that reflect these new competencies.  Patient safety should be conceptualized as a science, and undergraduate professional education should focus on core competencies within the domains identified earlier in this editorial.  This learning should extend beyond undergraduate and specialty training, leading to lifelong learning. National accreditation requirements should be aligned with the achievement of these competencies. The impact of this new set of educational priorities should be evaluated, and financial and other incentives should be aligned to support the changes.  Many of the recommendations are directed at top university leaders, and at even higher-level external leaders in education ministries and accrediting bodies, as these individuals play important roles in managing change <TextLink reference="47"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>There is a variety of tools and strategies that can be deployed.  Detailed discussion of these is beyond the scope of this paper.  However, these include both high tech and lower tech simulation <TextLink reference="48"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="49"></TextLink> and also the use of standardized patients. Training in the use of standardized tools to improve teamwork and communication, such as TeamSTEPPS and the Comprehensive Unit Based Safety Program (CUSP) can be useful to improve knowledge, attitudes, and outcomes <TextLink reference="50"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="51"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="52"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Traditional role modeling remains crucial as an essential element of teaching. This is particularly important for imparting values and behaviors that support a culture of safety and optimal learning, and to support both the prevention and handling of errors.  Partnering whenever possible with patients is also an important part of education <TextLink reference="53"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>There are excellent basic textbooks <TextLink reference="54"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="55"></TextLink>, as well as a growing bank of free on-line resources to provide information, guidance and training in patient safety <TextLink reference="56"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="57"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="58"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="59"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="60"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Was getan werden sollte">
      <MainHeadline>Was getan werden sollte</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Um den Lehrplan zu &#228;ndern, den Auszubildenden Kompetenzen und ein Bewusstsein f&#252;r die Sicherheitskultur zu vermitteln und um letztendlich Verhaltens&#228;nderungen zu bewirken, m&#252;ssen Stakeholder aus dem medizinischen Ausbildungsbereich und Gesundheitsorganisationen aktiv werden.</Pgraph><Pgraph>F&#252;r eine Organisation, die sich auf einen derartigen Lehrplanwechsel einl&#228;sst, ist Kommunikation und Engagement von Lehrenden und Mitarbeitenden von Anfang an unverzichtbar <TextLink reference="44"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="45"></TextLink>. Dabei ist es wichtig, &#252;ber die Gr&#252;nde f&#252;r die vorgeschlagenen &#196;nderungen und die damit verbundenen Prozesse aufzukl&#228;ren. Es ist von entscheidender Bedeutung, den Mitarbeitenden, die daran beteiligt sind, berufliche Entwicklungsm&#246;glichkeiten zu bieten. Dies sollte einschl&#228;gige Schulungen und Aktivit&#228;ten umfassen, die es ihnen erm&#246;glichen, sich am Ver&#228;nderungsprozess zu beteiligen.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Das <Mark2>Lucian Leape Institute</Mark2> der <Mark2>National Patient Safety Foundation</Mark2> berief eine Expertengruppe ein, die Empfehlungen zur Verbesserung der Ausbildung in Patientensicherheit herausgab <TextLink reference="46"></TextLink>. Obwohl sie in den USA f&#252;r die Reform medizinischer Fakult&#228;ten entwickelt wurden, sind die meisten dieser Empfehlungen auf den internationalen Kontext und auf andere Ausbildungsrichtungen im Gesundheitswesen &#252;bertragbar. Die Empfehlungen konzentrieren sich zun&#228;chst auf die Entwicklung von Lernkulturen, die Sicherheit, Professionalit&#228;t, Zusammenarbeit und Transparenz betonen. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf der F&#246;rderung zwischenmenschlicher F&#228;higkeiten und interdisziplin&#228;rer Teamarbeit. Es sollten Mittel bereitgestellt werden, um die betreffende Fakult&#228;t bei der Entwicklung der f&#252;r die Bereitstellung der Lehrpl&#228;ne erforderlichen F&#228;higkeiten zu unterst&#252;tzen. Die &#196;nderungen sollten sich auf die Auswahl der Studierenden erstrecken, deren Eigenschaften diese neuen Kompetenzen widerspiegeln. Patientensicherheit sollte als Wissenschaft konzeptualisiert werden und die berufliche Erstausbildung sollte sich auf Kernkompetenzen in denjenigen Bereichen konzentrieren, die in diesem Editorial bereits beschrieben wurden. Dieses Lernen sollte &#252;ber die Grund- und Spezialausbildung hinausgehen und zu lebenslangem Lernen f&#252;hren. Die nationalen Akkreditierungsanforderungen sollten an die Erreichung dieser Kompetenzen angepasst werden. Die Auswirkungen dieses neuen Satzes von Bildungspriorit&#228;ten sollten bewertet sowie finanzielle und andere Anreize angeglichen werden, um die &#196;nderungen zu unterst&#252;tzen. Viele der Empfehlungen richten sich an akademische sowie an externe F&#252;hrungskr&#228;fte in noch h&#246;heren Positionen, wie etwa in Bildungsministerien und Akkreditierungsstellen, da diese Personen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Umsetzung von Ver&#228;nderungsprozessen spielen <TextLink reference="47"></TextLink>.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Es gibt eine Vielzahl von Tools und Strategien, die eingesetzt werden k&#246;nnen, wobei eine ausf&#252;hrliche Er&#246;rterung allerdings nicht Gegenstand dieses Editorials sein kann. Dazu geh&#246;ren sowohl High-Tech- als auch Low-Tech-Simulationen <TextLink reference="48"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="49"></TextLink> und die Verwendung standardisierter Patientinnen und Patienten. Standardisierte Schulungen zum Einsatz von Tools zur Verbesserung der Teamarbeit und Kommunikation, wie <Mark2>TeamSTEPPS</Mark2> und das <Mark2>Comprehensive Unit Based Safety-Programm</Mark2> (CUSP), k&#246;nnen dabei helfen, Wissen zu vertiefen, Einstellungen zu &#228;ndern und Ergebnisse zu verbessern <TextLink reference="50"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="51"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="52"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Das traditionelle Lernen am Modell ist nach wie vor ein entscheidender Bestandteil des Lehrens. Dies ist besonders wichtig, um Werte und Verhaltensweisen zu vermitteln, die eine Sicherheitskultur und optimales Lernen f&#246;rdern und um die Vermeidung von und den ad&#228;quaten Umgang mit Fehlern zu unterst&#252;tzen. Die Zusammenarbeit mit Patientinnen und Patienten &#8211; wann immer m&#246;glich &#8211; ist ein weiterer bedeutender Teil der Ausbildung <TextLink reference="53"></TextLink>. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Es gibt hervorragende Standardlehrb&#252;cher <TextLink reference="54"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="55"></TextLink> sowie eine wachsende Anzahl kostenloser Online-Ressourcen, die Informationen, Anleitungen und Schulungen zur Patientensicherheit anbieten <TextLink reference="56"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="57"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="58"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="59"></TextLink>, <TextLink reference="60"></TextLink>.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="Conclusion">
      <MainHeadline>Conclusion</MainHeadline><Pgraph>It is a worldwide imperative to prepare the health care work force to deliver safer care. We believe that patient safety should be regarded as a new basic science for health professions education. However, the translation of patient safety science into safe practice is also a highly applied activity. Major reforms will be needed to incorporate patient safety into the curricula of professional schools and training programs. These organizations will need to redirect their focus away from the mere acquisition of knowledge to developing competencies and changing behavior.</Pgraph><Pgraph>The new curriculum will need to include competencies related to providing patient-centered care, working in interdisciplinary teams, using evidence-based practices, and applying quality improvement concepts. These competencies involve changing how students see, and changing attitudes and skills. We would like students to be able to see individual safety problems with system lenses, and be able to identify and test potential solutions.</Pgraph><Pgraph>We are aware that there are challenges associated with integrating patient safety into education and training. A major barrier is the prevailing culture of shame, blame, and denial about medical errors. The hidden curriculum competes with attempts to create a culture of safety and allow optimal learning.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Action will be needed from multiple stakeholders in health professions education and health care organizations. Communication from top leaders and transparency throughout the organization are needed in the entire process.  Coordination will also be needed to give students opportunities to practice their new skills in real world settings.</Pgraph><Pgraph>We now have sufficient tools for any organization to make a good start. There is still much to learn, such as effective strategies to educate trainees in multidisciplinary and practice-based settings, and how to adapt materials to fit the local context. Innovations are still needed, and building research and evaluation into early efforts will help us arrive more quickly to the goal of making patients safer.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Fazit">
      <MainHeadline>Fazit</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Es ist unabdingbar, das Gesundheitspersonal weltweit auf sichere Patientenversorgung vorzubereiten. Wir sind der Meinung, dass die Patientensicherheit als neue Grundlagenwissenschaft f&#252;r die Ausbildung in Gesundheitsberufen betrachtet werden sollte. Die &#220;bertragung des Forschungsfeldes Patientensicherheit in sichere medizinische Verfahrensweisen ist jedoch auch ein sehr praxisnahes Unterfangen. Um die Patientensicherheit in die Lehrpl&#228;ne von Fachschulen und Ausbildungsprogrammen zu integrieren, sind umfangreiche Reformen erforderlich. Diese Organisationen m&#252;ssen ihren Fokus vom reinen Erwerb von Wissen auf die Entwicklung von Kompetenzen und Verhaltens&#228;nderungen lenken.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Der neue Lehrplan muss Kompetenzen vermitteln, die im Zusammenhang stehen mit patientenorientierter Betreuung, Arbeit in interdisziplin&#228;ren Teams, Anwendung von evidenzbasierten Praktiken sowie von Qualit&#228;tsverbesserungskonzepten. Dazu z&#228;hlt auch, sowohl die Sichtweisen der Studierenden als auch Einstellungen und Kenntnisse zu ver&#228;ndern. Studierende sollten in der Lage sein, individuelle Sicherheitsprobleme durch &#8222;Systemlinsen&#8220; zu sehen und m&#246;gliche L&#246;sungen identifizieren und testen zu k&#246;nnen.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Wir sind uns bewusst, dass die Integration des Themas Patientensicherheit in die allgemeine und berufliche Bildung mit Herausforderungen verbunden ist. Ein gro&#223;es Hindernis ist die vorherrschende Kultur der Scham, der Schuldzuweisung und der Leugnung medizinischer Fehler. Der heimliche Lehrplan steht im Wettbewerb mit den Versuchen, eine Sicherheitskultur zu schaffen und optimales Lernen zu erm&#246;glichen.</Pgraph><Pgraph>Unterschiedliche Akteure in den Bereichen Ausbildung und Gesundheitsf&#252;rsorge m&#252;ssen Ma&#223;nahmen ergreifen. Kommunikation von Top-F&#252;hrungskr&#228;ften und Transparenz in der gesamten Einrichtung sind w&#228;hrend des Prozesses erforderlich. Koordinierung wird ebenfalls notwendig sein, um den Studierenden die M&#246;glichkeit zu geben, ihre neuen F&#228;higkeiten in der Praxis zu &#252;ben. </Pgraph><Pgraph>Es stehen nun gen&#252;gend Tools zur Verf&#252;gung, so dass jede Organisation gute Startbedingungen hat. Dennoch gibt es noch viel zu erlernen, etwa wirksame Strategien f&#252;r die Schulung von Auszubildenden im multidisziplin&#228;ren und praxisorientierten Umfeld sowie die Anpassung von Lehrmaterialien an lokale Gegebenheiten. Innovationen sind immer noch erforderlich. Fr&#252;hzeitige Erforschung und Evaluierung lassen uns das Ziel, die Patientenversorgung sicherer zu machen, rascher erreichen. </Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="en" linked="yes" name="Competing interests">
      <MainHeadline>Competing interests</MainHeadline><Pgraph>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
    <TextBlock language="de" linked="yes" name="Interessenkonflikt">
      <MainHeadline>Interessenkonflikt</MainHeadline><Pgraph>Die Autoren erkl&#228;ren, dass sie keine Interessenkonflikte im Zusammenhang mit diesem Artikel haben.</Pgraph></TextBlock>
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